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, Ainsi dans les années 90 (Hutin, 1997) il y eu transfert vers l'aval des gains de productivité, alors que depuis lors (Butault, Delame, and Rousselle, 1995) il y a eu plutôt conservation des gains de productivité à l'amont. Les prix des fruits ont significativement baissé de 1990 à 1995 pour remonter ensuite jusqu'en 2003. Les résultats de Hutin s'expliquent par la baisse des prix du début des années 1990 (d'où un transfert important vers les clients et a contrario une contribution des agriculteurs à la formation du surplus). A l'inverse, les résultats de Butault (étude 1991-2003) s'expliquent par la remontée des prix à partir de 1995, En effet, pour les grandes cultures, les résultats des trois études sont comparables si ce n'est la participation de l

, Ceci est lié au fait que les prix des F&L sont beaucoup plus variables d'une année sur l'autre (et évidemment au sein d'une année) que les autres cultures. Outre les caractéristiques propres de ces produits (périssabilité forte pour nombre d'entre eux)

, Le secteur des fruits et légumes n'échappe pas aux mécanismes généraux de formation des prix qui sont fondamentalement dictés par une confrontation entre offre et demande et la recherche, à tout moment, d'un prix permettant d'égaliser la quantité offerte à ce prix et la demande exprimée à ce prix

, En particulier, il permet de montrer qu'une augmentation de la demande (en raison, par exemple, d'une campagne d'information) conduit à une augmentation du prix du bien (à fonction d'offre constante) et à une augmentation de la consommation. L'augmentation de la consommation est cependant limitée par la hausse du prix du bien. Cette hausse du prix sera d'autant plus faible, et donc moins pénalisante sur la consommation, que l'offre du bien sera élastique. De façon générale, l'offre de biens agricoles nécessitant des investissements spécifiques (arboriculture, cultures sous serres?

, L'augmentation de la demande se répercutera donc plus fortement sur les prix à court terme qu'à long terme. De même, un progrès technique qui se traduit par une diminution des coûts implique (à fonction de demande donnée) une diminution du prix et une augmentation de la quantité consommée. Cette dernière sera d'autant plus forte que la demande pour le bien est élastique

, L'analyse statistique de la transmission des prix au sein des filières

, L'analyse statistique de la transmission des prix au sein d'une filière vise à établir les liens de causalité entre les variations de prix aux différents stades (généralement prix d'expédition et prix de détail), à étudier la formation de marge de la distribution, à étudier la vitesse de transmission des variations de prix et à déterminer s'il y a ou non asymétrie dans la transmission des variations de prix (i.e. les hausses de prix sont-elles plus facilement et plus

;. L'état-de-la-littérature-de and M. Frey, qui concerne tant des produits agricoles que des produits industriels (notamment l'essence), montre que l'asymétrie de transmission des prix (généralement les prix augmentent plus rapidement qu'ils ne baissent) est un phénomène très répandu puisque plus de 80% des études citées concluent à la présence de transmission asymétrique, 2005.

. Agrosynergie, Evaluation of withdrawals and crisis management in fruit and vegetables sector. Study for the European Commission, 2007.

, Vers une réforme de l'OCM dans le secteur des fruits et légumes frais et transformés. Document de travail des services de la commission accompagnant la proposition de règlement du conseil, 2007.

, Cela est d'autant plus vrai que les produits sont plus périssables et soumis à des aléas. Cette coordination se situe d'abord sur le plan opérationnel pour la gestion des flux de produits et d'information

. Comme-le-montre, 2002) la maîtrise des durées des opérations tout au long des chaînes d'approvisionnement constitue un enjeu majeur dans le secteur des F&L : les temps de chargement/ déchargement des produits, de tri, de conditionnement, d'étiquetage, de stockage affectent en effet fortement la qualité des produits les plus périssables (Zuurbier, 1999)

C. Bouhsina, H. Hernandez, B. , C. Hernandez-sanchez, B. et al., Sur la base de données portant sur les organisations de producteurs (en 2002) du sud de la France, ces études montrent que l'HACCP est adopté par près des deux tiers, et l'ISO 9000 par un tiers de ces OP. L'adoption de ces standards génériques est d'abord liée à la réponse stratégique d'assurance-qualité exigée par les clients principaux. Cependant, le développement de procédures plus efficaces de gestion de la qualité devient progressivement l'objectif principal des firmes, qui représentent une grande variété de groupes de producteurs, de coopératives, d'associations, d'alliances commerciales et d'autres formes. Ces auteurs ont analysé les différentes stratégies d'adoption, de champs d'opération et de limites des normes, ainsi que les caractéristiques et transformations des dispositifs d'organisation liés à l'adoption de normes génériques. Ils mettent ainsi en évidence la complémentarité et la synergie entre les deux normes génériques et sur leurs effets à long terme. Il ressort, en outre, que le taux d'exportation, la concentration de la clientèle et le nombre de sites gérés par la firme apparaissent comme les variables qui expliquent le plus la propension à adopter les standards génériques. Les impacts de l'adoption des standards génériques sont très différents selon la forme de gouvernance (expéditeur privé, coopérative, groupement, alliance commerciale) qui régit l'entreprise et selon les structures productives, organisationnelles, et informationnelles qui guident ses activités (taille, nombre de producteurs, nombre de stations, effectif et qualification de la main d'oeuvre et des cadres dirigeants?), Plusieurs travaux ont porté sur la question de la traçabilité des produits et les dispositifs d'assurancequalité. La traçabilité des F&L semble désormais assez largement répandue (Glemot, 2000) et les dispositifs du type HACCP et ISO 9000 ont été largement adoptés par le secteur en France, 2002.

, il existe encore des marges de manoeuvre pour améliorer les performances des chaînes d'approvisionnement par une meilleure gestion de la traçabilité et une intensification des échanges d'information entre amont et aval. Une voie peut être ainsi de donner aux producteurs une meilleure information sur les niveaux de qualité mesurés en aval et, à l'inverse, de donner aux opérateurs en aval une meilleure appréciation des niveaux de qualité prévus en amont. Ceci suppose des systèmes informatisés performants permettant de gérer les échanges d'information de façon très détaillée, Pour certains auteurs, 2004.

, ce qui est une souvent une meilleure garantie pour le consommateur. Dans quelques cas émergents, le contrôle est effectué par des organisations de consommateurs ou de citoyens (fourth-party control)

G. -. Codron and S. Heraud, Ces stratégies sont permises par la mise en place de systèmes de management de la qualité sanitaire, notamment lorsqu'ils font l'objet d'une certification (ils deviennent alors des systèmes d'assurance qualité) (Holleran, Bredahl, and Zaibet, 1999). L'adoption de ces systèmes est basé sur le volontariat, En fait, c'est surtout dans les relations internes aux filières entre fournisseurs et distributeurs, 2003.

C. Hubbell, B. Holleran, . Zaibet-;-codron, . Sterns, ;. Reardon et al., ) montrent en comparant les mécanismes de 5 pays européens, que les systèmes de production intégrée sont souvent plus élaborés au niveau des exigences agronomiques tandis que les systèmes de gestion de la qualité sont plus en pointe sur les procédures de contrôle. calculable comme celui de (Rae, 2004)qui reprend GTAP 7 , le secteur des F&L est réduit à un seul agrégat, et les spécificités de ce secteur sont totalement lissées, Les systèmes de management de la qualité sanitaire ont été décrits dans leur variété et selon qu'ils étaient mis en oeuvre au niveau de la production (Farm Assurance Schemes, Référentiels de Bonnes Pratiques Agricoles, de Production Intégrée, 1998.

, Le défi pour l'UE n'était pas mince car cette nouvelle politique devait répondre à plusieurs objectifs difficilement conciliables : respect des règles du GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, à présent Organisation Mondiale du Commerce), notamment garantie de l'accès au marché pour tous les exportateurs potentiels, respect des engagements de l'UE vis-à-vis des pays d'Afrique, Caraïbe et Pacifique (ACP) en vertu de la Convention de Lomé, garantie des intérêts des producteurs communautaires (les Canaries, la Crète, la Guadeloupe et la Martinique et Madère étant des zones productrices de bananes) et garantie des intérêts des consommateurs communautaires. L'UE décida finalement de construire son OCM autour d'un contingent tarifaire appliqué aux bananes d'Amérique Centrale et Latine (qualifiées de bananes dollar eu égard au rôle prépondérant des multinationales américaines dans les secteurs de la banane de cette zone). Les bananes en provenance des pays ACP étaient autorisées à entrer librement sur le marché européen en-deça d'un seuil fixé, ce qui permettait à l'UE de garantir l'accès préférentiel dont bénéficiaient ces bananes avant la mise en, Cette OCM visait à remplacer un ensemble complexe et hétérogène de politiques nationales incompatibles avec le Marché Unique, 1993.

L. Guyomard, L. Mouël, and ;. Guyomard, ) ; (Laroche-Dupraz, 1998) par exemple). Les résultats de tous ces travaux montraient le rôle clé de la taille du contingent tarifaire appliqué aux bananes dollar, Les modèles d'équilibre partiel des marchés de l'UE et/ou mondial de la banane construits à cette époque avaient donc pour objectif de simuler les effets pour l, 1997.

P. Lorca and . Spreen, par exemple étant utilisés pour simuler les effets de chacune de ces réformes. La dernière réforme en date qui a consisté à remplacer l'ancien système de contingentement tarifaire par un droit de douane unique appliqué aux seules bananes dollar est sans doute celle qui a suscité le plus de travaux. Il est vrai que la fixation du niveau de ce droit de douane a suscité de nombreuses discussions, les différents fournisseurs de bananes de l'UE ayant des intérêts contradictoires à cet égard (les pays d'Amérique Centrale et Latine plaidant pour un droit de douane le plus faible possible, les pays ACP au contraire pour un droit de douane suffisamment élevé leur garantissant le maintien de leur accès au marché de l'UE), UE a été forcée de réformer à plusieurs reprises son OCM. Les travaux ont suivi cette actualité, les modèles existants, de même que de nouveaux modèles apparus entre-temps, 1993.

, Ce projet est un réseau international de chercheurs et décideurs politiques qui mènent des analyses quantitatives en économie internationale. Ce réseau consiste notamment en l'élaboration d'une base de données commune et d'un modèle commun en équilibre général calculable. De ce fait, les liens entre l'agriculture et les autres secteurs de l'économie, GTAP : Global Trade Analysis Project

, Au-delà de ce seul travail de simulation, les quelques discussions sont menées au niveau de produits spécifiques ; discussions dont les conclusions convergent avec les analyses présentées dans la partie précédente. Elles montrent que les tarifs ne sont pas les seuls déterminants de l'accès au marché européen

(. Dans-le-cas-de-l'orange and G. Götz, anticipent un faible impact d'une plus grande libéralisation, notamment dans le cadre du processus actuel de Barcelone (accords euroméditerranéens). Plusieurs éléments les mènent à cette conclusion. Tout d'abord, 2007.

F. De-ce, il apparaît que les éléments de la politique commerciale ne sont pas les seuls déterminants des exportations méditerranéennes ; d'autres facteurs déterminent les échanges. Ainsi par exemple, la production israëlienne d'oranges (de variété Shamouti) ne serait pas adaptée à la demande des consommateurs allemands notamment qui préfèrent les oranges de type navel

. Cioffi, Toutefois d'après des enquêtes réalisées auprès d'entreprises israëliennes, (Götz and Grethe, 2007) montrent que les perspectives de développement de ce type de produits restent faibles, 2004.

, Ainsi, les exigences de qualité minimum sont imposées en termes de calibre d'apparence externe voire d'uniformité. En outre, les exigences de type EUREPGAP encore plus restrictives conduiraient à augmenter la qualité des produits

, Ces résultats sur l'orange ne peuvent pas être généralisés à tous les produits : selon (Götz and Grethe, 2007) la suppression des prix d'entrée pour la clémentine, devrait conduire à une baisse des prix d'importation. Enfin, un résultat similaire pour la tomate devrait être trouvé, mais le potentiel d'exportation des pays méditerranéens est cependant limité du fait des contraintes importantes de ces pays en termes d'eau. Les capacités en irrigation dans certains pays sont, comme au Maroc, atteintes, -une modification de l'offre qui peut porter sur les prix, particulièrement sur les segments de produits "génériques

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, Les interventions et leur évaluation

, Deux types d'interventions peuvent être distinguées : celles qui visent l'individu, ses préférences, ses motivations dans l'espoir d'un changement de comportement et celles qui touchent son environnement

, mais ont un faible impact sur les comportements, sauf lorsqu'elles sont très ciblées (enfants), relayées par plusieurs acteurs, et qu'elles font l'objet de mesures d'accompagnement. L'amélioration des connaissances et des attitudes est toutefois un préalable nécessaire, Les interventions visant uniquement les préférences des consommateurs (éducation, marketing informationnel) améliorent les connaissances et les attitudes

C. , 5 par jour" est pertinente car les variations interindividuelles sont plus liées à la fréquence qu'à la taille des portions. Cette recommandation n

, Bien que sensibles à l'information nutritionnelle, les populations défavorisées sont souvent dans l'incapacité pratique de mettre en oeuvre les recommandations. Celles-ci doivent s'accompagner d'actions sur leur environnement (offre, prix), faute de quoi elles resteront lettre morte

, Elles apparaissent néanmoins plus efficaces que les actions dirigées vers les préférences des individus. Les interventions en milieu scolaire sont encourageantes, surtout lorsqu'elles sont complétées par des actions sur la famille. Les interventions sur les prix sont efficaces à court terme en milieu contrôlé, c'est-à-dire lorsque les possibilités de substitutions sont limitées (restaurant, cantine). La distribution de bons alimentaires à destination des populations défavorisées (programme des food stamps aux Etats-Unis) n'est efficace sur la consommation de F&L que, Peu de travaux permettent d'évaluer rigoureusement les interventions sur l'environnement du consommateur

, Assez logiquement, il semble bien que les interventions efficaces sont celles qui prennent en compte l'ensemble des dimensions et des contraintes de la consommation, en agissant à la fois sur les préférences des individus et sur leur environnement. Il faut souligner que les interventions combinées les plus efficaces sont celles qui sont locales (à l'échelle d'une ville par exemple ou d'une communauté). Toutefois, beaucoup reste à faire

, Le constat que la modification des habitudes alimentaires et l'augmentation de la consommation de fruits et légumes ne sont pas aisées, peut suggérer de privilégier l'augmentation des teneurs en phytonutriments des F&L. Ces teneurs varient avec l'espèce, mais sont aussi, au sein de chaque espèce, modulées par de nombreux facteurs. Les principales sources de variations sont inhérentes aux végétaux, d'ordre physiologique ou génétique

, Autant les données présentées ci-dessus peuvent être globales pour un ou des fruits et légumes, autant les études sur les teneurs en micronutriments sont effectuées à une échelle beaucoup plus fine (une ou des molécules, pour un matériel végétal

, Variations physiologiques et variabilité génétique de la composition en micronutriments La teneur de la plupart des composés évolue au cours du développement des organes, certains s'accumulant jusqu'à la maturation (des caroténoïdes, par exemple) alors que d'autres diminuent (la vitamine C par exemple), Elle peut différer fortement suivant les organes : beaucoup de métabolites