, An expert view on the combination of provenancing methods

. .. , Current challenges & Future perspectives

, Concrete examples of how methods could be combined

, 107 6.2.2 Using the software GeoAssign to combine genetic & stable isotope data

, 2.2.2 Analysis method to combine data

, Self-assignment success of both methods

, Assignment success of method combination strategies

, Using Geneland and Adegenet to combine genetic and phenotypic data

, Key literature for method combinations

. .. Appendices, 118 7.1 Appendix 1: List of CITES-protected trade timbers in the database CITESwoodID

. .. , Decision trees for provenance & Species identification

. .. Bayesian,

. .. Geneland,

. .. Gda-nt,

. .. Geoassign,

, Appendix, vol.3

, The origin of chemical compounds in wood

, The origin of stable isotope ratios in wood

.. .. Wood,

, Appendix 4: Guidelines for the building of ideal reference data collections

, Method independent advice for data storage & Management, Appendix, vol.5

, Appendix 6: Method independent advice for data interpretation & Reporting

, Advice for correct interpretation of observations

. .. Quality-data-reporting,

M. J. Asif and C. H. Cannon, DNA extraction from processed wood: a case study for the identification of an endangered timber species (Gonystylus bancanus), Plant Mol Biol Reporter, vol.23, pp.185-192, 2005.

C. Blanc-jolivet, Y. Yanbaev, and B. Kersten, A set of SNP markers for timber tracking of Larix spp, Europe and Russia. Forestry, vol.91, issue.5, 2018.

H. Caron, J. F. Molino, and D. Sabatier, Chloroplast DNA variation in a hyperdiverse tropical tree community, Ecology and Evolution, vol.9, pp.4897-4905, 2019.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02108230

C. Chaves, C. Blanc-jolivet, and A. Sebbenn, Nuclear and chloroplastic SNP markers for genetic studies of timber origin for Hymenaea trees, Conservation Genetics Resources, vol.11, pp.329-331, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02628115

K. Y. Chen, E. A. Marschall, and M. G. Sovic, assignPop: An R package for population assignment using genetic, non-genetic, or integrated data in a machine-learning framework, Methods in Ecology and Evolution, vol.9, issue.2, 2018.

E. E. Dormontt, D. I. Jardine, and K. J. Van-dijk, Forensic validation of a SNP and INDEL panel for individualisation of timber from bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursch), Forensic Science International: Genetics, vol.46, 2020.

S. Dumolin-lapègue, M. H. Pemonge, L. Gielly, and P. , Amplification of oak DNA from ancient and modern wood, Mol Ecol, vol.8, pp.2137-2140, 1999.

D. A. Earl and B. M. Vonholdt, STRUCTURE HARVESTER: A website and program for visualizing STRUCTURE output and implementing the Evanno method, Conservation Genetics Resources, vol.4, pp.359-361, 2012.

G. Guillot, F. Santos, and A. Estoup, Analysing georeferenced population genetics data with Geneland: a new algorithm to deal with null alleles and a friendly graphical user interface, Bioinformatics, vol.24, pp.1406-1413, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01197518

I. Hartvig, T. So, and S. Changtragoon, Conservation genetics of the critically endangered Siamese rosewood (Dalbergia cochinchinensis): recommendations for management and sustainable use, Conservation Genetics, 2020.

P. M. Hollingsworth, Refining the DNA barcode for land plants, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.108, pp.19451-19452, 2011.

H. Coronado, E. N. , C. Blanc-jolivet, and M. Mader, Development of nuclear and plastid SNP markers for genetic studies of Dipteryx tree species in Amazonia, Conservation Genetics Resources, vol.11, pp.333-336, 2019.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02215841

H. Coronado, E. N. , C. Blanc-jolivet, and M. Mader, SNP markers as a successful molecular tool for assessing species identity and geographic origin of trees in the economically important South American legume genus Dipteryx, Journal of Heredity, 2020.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02936018

M. Jakobsson and N. A. Rosenberg, CLUMPP: A cluster matching and permutation program for dealing with label switching and multimodality in analysis of population structure, Bioinformatics, vol.23, issue.14, pp.1801-1807, 2007.

P. K. Aggarwal, K. Fröhlich, K. M. Kulkarni, and L. L. Gourcy, Stable isotope evidence for moisture sources in the Asian summer monsoon under present and past climate regimes, Geophysical Research Letters, issue.8, p.31, 2004.

M. Boner and H. Förstel, Stable isotope variation as a tool to trace the authenticity of beef, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, vol.378, pp.301-310, 2004.

M. Boner, . Th, C. Somner, H. Erven, and . Förstel, Stable isotopes as a tool to trace back the origin of wood, Proceedings of the international workshop "Fingerprinting methods for the identification of timber origins, 2007.

R. J. Brienen, E. Gloor, S. Clerici, R. Newton, L. Arppe et al., Tree height strongly affects estimates of water-use efficiency responses to climate and CO2 using isotopes, Nature Communications, vol.8, p.288, 2017.

M. S. Broadmeadow, H. Griffiths, C. Maxwell, and A. M. Borland, The Carbon Isotope Ratio of Plant Organic Material Reflects Temporal and Spatial Variations in Co2 within Tropical Forest Formations in Trinidad, Oecologia, vol.89, issue.3, pp.435-441, 1992.

M. J. Deniro and S. Epstein, Relationship between oxygen isotope ratios of terrestrial plant cellulose, carbon dioxide and water, Science, vol.204, pp.51-53, 1979.

M. J. Deniro, The Effects of Different Methods of Preparing Cellulose Nitrate on the Determination of the D-H Ratios of Non-Exchangeable Hydrogen of Cellulose, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol.54, issue.2, pp.177-185, 1981.

, Liquidating the Forests: Hardwood flooring, organized crime, and the World's last Siberian Tigers, EIA, Environmental Investigation Agency, 2013.

N. B. English, J. L. Betancourt, J. S. Dean, and J. Quade, Strontium isotopes reveal distant sources of architectural timber in Chaco Canyon, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.98, issue.21, pp.11891-11896, 2001.

G. D. Farquhar, J. R. Ehleringer, and K. T. Hubick, Carbon Isotope Discrimination and Photosynthesis, Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol, vol.40, pp.503-540, 1989.

Y. Gori, R. Wehrens, M. Greule, F. Keppler, L. Ziller et al., Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope ratios of whole wood, cellulose and lignin methoxyl groups of Picea abies as climate proxies, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.27, issue.1, pp.265-275, 2013.

K. Heaton, S. D. Kelly, J. Hoogewerff, and M. Woolfe, Verifying the geographical origin of beef: The application of multi-element isotope and trace element analysis, Food Chemistry, vol.107, pp.506-515, 2008.

. Key-literature-for, . Tofms, and . Analysis,

M. J. Baxter, On the Multivariate Normality of Data Arising from Lead Isotope Fields, Journal of Archaeological Science, vol.26, issue.1, pp.117-124, 1999.

R. B. Cody, J. A. Laramee, and H. D. Durst, Versatile new ion source for the analysis of materials in open air under ambient conditions, Analytical Chemistry, vol.77, issue.8, pp.2297-2302, 2005.

R. B. Cody, A. J. Dane, B. Dawson-andoh, E. O. Adedipe, and K. Nkansah, Rapid classification of White Oak (Quercus alba) and Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra) by using pyrolysis direct analysis in real time (DART (TM)) and time-of-flight mass spectrometry, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol.95, pp.134-137, 2012.

V. Deklerck, K. Finch, P. Gasson, J. Van-den-bulcke, J. Van-acker et al., Comparison of species classification models of mass spectrometry data: Kernel Discriminant Analysis vs Random Forest; A case study of Afrormosia (Pericopsis elata (Harms) Meeuwen), Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.31, pp.1582-1588, 2017.

V. Deklerck, C. Lancaster, J. Van-acker, E. Espinoza, and J. , Van den Bulcke and H. Beeckman (under review). Chemical fingerprinting of wood sampled along a pithto-bark gradient allows individual distinction and provenance identification, Forestry

V. Deklerck, T. Mortier, N. Goeders, R. B. Cody, W. Waegeman et al., A protocol for automated timber species identification using metabolome profiling, 2019.

E. O. Espinoza, C. A. Lancaster, N. M. Kreitals, M. Hata, R. B. Cody et al., Distinguishing wild from cultivated agarwood (Aquilaria spp.) using direct analysis in real time and time of-flight mass spectrometry, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.28, issue.3, pp.281-289, 2014.

E. O. Espinoza, M. C. Wiemann, J. Barajas-morales, G. D. Chavarria, and P. J. Mcclure, Forensic Analysis of Cites-Protected Dalbergia Timber from the Americas, 2015.

, IAWA Journal, vol.36, issue.3, pp.311-325

P. D. Evans, I. A. Mundo, M. C. Wiemann, G. D. Chavarria, P. J. Mcclure et al., Identification of selected CITES-protected Araucariaceae using DART TOFMS, IAWA Journal, vol.38, issue.2, pp.266-269, 2017.

K. Finch, E. Espinoza, F. A. Jones, and R. Cronn, Source Identification of Western Oregon Douglas-Fir Wood Cores Using Mass Spectrometry and Random Forest Classification, Applications in Plant Sciences, vol.5, issue.5, 2017.

D. Hawkins, Identification of Outliers, 1980.

C. Lancaster and E. Espinoza, Analysis of select Dalbergia and trade timber using direct analysis in real time and time-of-flight mass spectrometry for CITES enforcement, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.26, issue.9, pp.1147-1156, 2012.

C. Lancaster and E. Espinoza, Evaluating agarwood products for 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones using direct analysis in real time time-of-flight mass spectrometry, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.26, issue.23, pp.2649-2656, 2012.

P. J. Mcclure, G. D. Chavarria, and E. Espinoza, Metabolic chemotypes of CITES protected Dalbergia timbers from Africa, Madagascar, and Asia, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.29, issue.9, pp.783-788, 2015.

K. Paredes-villanueva, Tropical timber forensics: a multi-methods approach to tracing Bolivian Cedrela (Doctoral dissertation, 2018.

K. Paredes-villanueva, E. Espinoza, J. Ottenburghs, M. G. Sterken, F. Bongers et al., Chemical differentiation of Bolivian Cedrela species as a tool to trace illegal timber trade, Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research, vol.91, issue.5, pp.603-613, 2018.

. Key-literature-for, . Nirs, and . Analysis,

L. E. Agelet and C. R. Hurburgh, A Tutorial on Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Calibration, Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, vol.40, pp.246-260, 2010.

M. C. Araújo, T. C. Saldanha, R. K. Galvão, T. Yoneyama, H. C. Chame et al., The Successive Projections Algorithm for variable selection in spectroscopic multicomponent, Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, vol.57, pp.65-73, 2001.

, Standard Practices for Infrared Multivariate Quantitative Analysis, ASTM E1655, p.17, 2017.

R. M. Balabin, R. Z. Safieva, and E. I. Lomakina, Gasoline classification using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy data: Comparison of multivariate techniques, Analytica Chimica Acta, vol.671, pp.27-35, 2010.

M. C. Bergo, T. C. Pastore, V. T. Coradin, A. C. Wiedenhoeft, and J. W. Braga, NIRS Identification of Swietenia macrophylla is Robust Across Specimens from, p.27, 2016.

, Countries. IAWA Journal, vol.37, issue.3, pp.420-430

J. W. Braga, T. C. Pastore, V. T. Coradin, J. A. Camargos, and A. R. Da-silva, The Use of near Infrared Spectroscopy to Identify Solid Wood Specimens of Swietenia macrophylla (Cites Appendix Ii), IAWA Journal, vol.32, issue.2, pp.285-296, 2011.

G. Chaix, T. Giordanengo, V. Segura, N. Mourey, B. Charrier et al., Near infrared spectroscopy, a new tool to characterize wood for use by the cooperage industry, Chemistry of lignocellulosics: current trends, pp.42-65, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02939294

I. Chong and C. Jun, Performance of some variable selection methods when multicollinearity is present, Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, vol.78, pp.103-112, 2005.

P. Dardenne, Some considerations about NIR spectroscopy: Closing speech at NIR-2009, NIR news, vol.21, pp.8-10, 2010.

P. Filzmoser, B. Liebmann, and K. Varmuza, Repeated double cross-validation, Journal of Chemometrics, vol.23, pp.160-171, 2009.

F. A. Honorato, M. N. Martins, R. K. Galvao, B. Neto, and M. F. Pimentel, Calibration transfer in mutivariate methods, Química Nova, vol.30, pp.1301-1312, 2007.

T. C. Pastore, J. W. Braga, V. T. Coradin, W. L. Magalhaes, E. Y. Okino et al., Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) as a potential tool for monitoring trade of similar woods: Discrimination of true mahogany, cedar, andiroba, and curupixa, Holzforschung, vol.65, issue.1, pp.73-80, 2011.

A. Rinnan, F. W. Van-den-berg, and S. B. Engelsen, Review of the Most Common pre-Processing Techniques for Near-Infrared Spectra, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, vol.28, issue.10, pp.1201-1222, 2009.

M. Schwanninger, J. C. Rodrigues, and K. Fackler, A review of band assignments in near infrared spectra of wood and wood components, Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy, vol.19, pp.287-308, 2011.

D. C. Silva, T. C. Pastore, L. F. Soares, F. A. De-barros, M. C. Bergo et al., Determination of the country of origin of true mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) wood in five Latin American countries using handheld NIR devices and multivariate data analysis, Holzforschung, vol.72, issue.7, pp.521-530, 2018.

F. A. Snel, J. W. Braga, D. Silva, A. C. Wiedenhoeft, A. Costa et al., Potential field-deployable NIRS identification of seven Dalbergia species listed by CITES, Wood Science and Technology, vol.52, issue.5, pp.1411-1427, 2018.

L. F. Soares, D. C. Silva, M. C. Bergo, V. T. Coradin, J. W. Braga et al., Evaluation of a Nir Handheld Device and PLS-DA for Discrimination of Six Similar Amazonian Wood Species, Química Nova, vol.40, issue.4, pp.418-426, 2017.

R. F. Teófilo, J. P. Martins, and M. M. Ferreira, Sorting variables by using informative vectors as a strategy for feature selection in multivariate regression, Journal of Chemometrics, vol.23, pp.32-48, 2009.

Y. Wang, D. J. Veltkamp, and B. R. Kowalski, Multivariate instrument standardization, Analytical Chemistry, vol.63, issue.23, pp.2750-2756, 1991.

F. Westad and F. Marini, Validation of chemometric models -A tutorial, Analytica Chimica Acta, vol.893, pp.14-24, 2015.

P. Williams, P. Dardenne, and P. Flinn, Tutorial: Items to be included in a report on a near infrared spectroscopy project, Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy, vol.25, 2017.

C. Blanc-jolivet, K. B.-kersten, O. Dainou, E. Hardy, A. Guichoux et al., Development of nuclear SNP markers for genetic tracking of Iroko, Milicia excelsa and Milicia regia, Conservation Genetics Resources, vol.9, issue.4, pp.531-533, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01607190

J. M. Cornuet, S. Piry, G. Luikart, A. Estoup, and M. Solignac, New methods employing multilocus genotypes to select or exclude populations as origins of individuals, Genetics, vol.153, issue.4, pp.1989-2000, 1999.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00295518

K. Dainou, C. Blanc-jolivet, B. Degen, P. Kimani, D. Ndiade-bourobou et al., Revealing hidden species diversity in closely related species using nuclear SNPs, SSRs and DNA sequences -a case study in the tree genus Milicia, Bmc Evolutionary Biology, vol.16, 2016.

B. Degen, C. Blanc-jolivet, K. Stierand, and E. Gillet, A nearest neighbour approach by genetic distance to the assignment of individual trees to geographic origin, Forensic Science International-Genetics, vol.27, pp.132-141, 2017.

B. Degen and H. Bouda, Verifying timber in Africa, ITTO Trop Forest Update, vol.24, issue.1, pp.8-10, 2015.

B. Degen, H. Bouda, and C. Blanc-jolivet, Development and implementation of a species identification and timber tracking system with DNA fingerprints and isotopes in Africa, 2016.

B. Efron, Estimating the Error Rate of a Prediction Rule: Improvement on Cross-Validation, Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol.78, issue.382, pp.316-331, 1983.

H. R. Gregorius, A unique genetic distance, Biometrical Journal, vol.26, issue.1, pp.13-18, 1984.

G. Guillot, S. Renaud, R. Ledevin, J. Michaux, and J. Claude, A Unifying Model for the Analysis of Phenotypic, Genetic, and Geographic Data, Systematic Biology, vol.61, issue.6, pp.897-911, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02296821

M. Horacek, G. Rees, M. Boner, and J. Zahnen, Comment on: Developing forensic tools for an African timber, Biological Conservation, vol.226, pp.333-334, 2018.

T. Jombart, S. Devillard, and F. Balloux, Discriminant analysis of principal components: a new method for the analysis of genetically structured populations, BMC Genetics, vol.11, p.94, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00539267

K. Paredes-villanueva, Y. Gori, R. Wehrens, M. Greule, F. Keppler et al., Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope ratios of whole wood, cellulose and lignin methoxyl groups of Picea abies as climate proxies, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, vol.27, issue.1, pp.265-275, 2013.

M. Horacek, M. Jakusch, and H. Krehan, Control of origin of larch wood: discrimination between European (Austrian) and Siberian origin by stable isotope analysis, Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom, vol.23, pp.3688-3692, 2009.

M. Horacek, G. Rees, M. Boner, and J. Zahnen, Comment on: Developing forensic tools for an African timber, Biological Conservation, vol.226, pp.333-334, 2018.

R. R. Seal and . Ii, Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry of Sulfide Minerals. USGS Staff -Published Research, vol.345, 2006.

U. Siegenthaler, Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes in the Water Cycle, Lectures in Isotope Geology pp, pp.264-273, 1979.

H. G. Thode, J. Monster, and H. B. Dunford, How Precise Can Wood Identification Be? Wood Anatomy's Role in Support of the Legal Timber Trade, Especially CITES, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol.25, issue.2, pp.137-154, 1961.

K. Paredes-villanueva, Tropical timber forensics: a multi-methods approach to tracing Bolivian Cedrela (Doctoral dissertation, 2018.

, Best Practice Guide for Forensic Timber Identification, UNODC, 2016.